NECROSIS AVASCULAR DE LA CABEZA FEMORAL
 
ENFERMEDADES DEL APARATO LOCOMOTOR

 

nota importante  
NECROSIS AVASCULAR DE LA CADERA

 

INTRODUCCION

La necrosis avascular de la cabeza femoral es un proceso patológico que resulta de la interrupción del suministro de sangre al hueso. Se debe a factores traumáticos o no traumáticos que comprometen la circulación de la cabeza femoral. Esta falta de circulación puede ser extraósea cefálica (arterias retinaculares) en la necrosis postraumática, o por procesos vasculares intracefálicos en las necrosis idiopáticas. La isquemia en la cabeza femoral resulta en la muerte de la médula y de los osteocitos y finalizando en el colapso del segmento necrótico.

ANATOMÍA

A los 12-14 años de edad, los huesos parcialmente osificados del ilion, isquión y la pelvis se unen para formar un cartílago triradial en forma de Y, que procede a fundirse a la edad de 15-16 años

 


En el momento en que un individuo llega a la edad de 13-14 años, el hueso parcialmente osificado del ilion, isquion, y la pelvis. El acetábulo es principalmente esférica en su margen superior y permite aproximadamente 170 º de cobertura de la cabeza femoral. La cabeza del fémur no es perfectamente esférica, y la conformidad de la articulación es precisa sólo en la posición de soporte de peso.

El sistema trabecular interna de la cabeza femoral está orientado a lo largo de líneas de estrés. Trabéculas gruesas que surgen de la calcar se extienden dentro de la cúpula que soporta el peso de la cabeza del fémur y brinda resistencia a cargas de compresión a través de la articulación.

El aporte arterial a la cabeza femoral se proporciona principalmente por 3 fuentes: (1) un anillo extracapsular arterial en la base del cuello femoral, (2) ramas ascendentes del anillo arterial en la superficie del cuello femoral, y (3) de las arterias el ligamento redondo. Esta irrigación arterial está bien colocada en el cuello femoral y se daña fácilmente con cualquier desplazamiento de la fractura del cuello del fémur. Además, los buques de nutrientes a la cabeza femoral terminan en pequeñas arteriolas que son fácilmente ocluidos con poca cosa embólico (es decir, los lípidos)

SIGNOS

AVN pueden presentar con signos y síntomas inespecíficos.
Temprano en el proceso de la enfermedad, la afección es indolora;. Sin embargo, en última instancia, los pacientes se presentan con dolor y limitación del movimiento
El dolor se localiza con mayor frecuencia en la zona de la ingle, pero también puede manifestarse en el glúteos ipsilateral, rodilla, o mayor región del trocánter.
síntomas dolorosos suelen ser exacerbados con carga de peso, pero se alivian con el reposo.

Rango de movimiento pasivo de la cadera es limitada y dolorosa, especialmente la rotación interna forzada.
Una limitación clara de la abducción pasiva se observa por lo general.
Un aumento de la pierna recta contra la resistencia provoca dolor en casos más sintomáticos.
rotación interna y externa pasiva de la pierna extendida ("log prueba de balanceo") puede provocar dolor que es consistente con una sinovitis capsular activo.

RauMatic AVN es simplemente un resultado de la rotura mecánica del flujo de sangre a la cabeza femoral. Durante los esfuerzos deportivos, dislocación de la cadera o subluxación es el medio traumáticas más frecuentes de AVN. Una entrada por detrás puede causar una subluxación anterior de la cadera en un portador de la pelota. Del mismo modo, el secuestro o la rotación externa extrema puede dar lugar a una luxación anterior en un esquiador acuático caído.
Del mismo modo, una fractura de cuello femoral desplazada puede dañar los vasos del retináculo frágiles, que abastecen a la cabeza femoral y provocar necrosis de la cabeza femoral. (Ver también los artículos Medscape Referencia del cuello femoral Fractura de imágenes [en la sección de Radiología], cuello femoral Fracturas de estrés y la Insuficiencia [en la sección de Cirugía Ortopédica], y la fractura del cuello femoral [en la sección de Medicina del Deporte].) [3]
La mayoría de los casos de AVN son atraumática e incluir la siguiente [4]:

El uso excesivo de corticosteroides y cuenta el abuso del alcohol por hasta el 90% de los nuevos casos.
coagulación intravascular parece ser el evento central asociado con no traumática AVN. (Véase también el artículo de Medscape Referencia Coagulación intravascular diseminada.)
Coagulación puede ser secundaria a la compresión extravascular (por ejemplo, aumento de la grasa de la médula), lesión de la pared del deposito (por ejemplo, quimioterapia, radiación), o un evento tromboembólico (por ejemplo, embolia grasa).
Isquémica insulto a la cabeza femoral se traduce en el hueso subcondral infartado. En esta situación, se debilitó y no reparados trabéculas óseas necróticas falla bajo una carga de compresión, lo que lleva a un colapso subcondral (es decir, signo de la media luna) y, en definitiva, el colapso articular.

Causas traumáticas de AVN cabeza femoral se incluyen los siguientes:

Fracturas de cuello femoral
Dislocación de la cadera (Véase también el artículos Medscape referencia Dislocación de la Cadera [en la sección de Medicina del Deporte] y luxaciones de cadera en Medicina de Emergencia.)
Deslizamiento de la epífisis capital femoral (Ver también los artículos Medscape referencia Hernia Cirugía de la cabeza femoral [en el Servicio de Cirugía Ortopédica sección] y Deslizamiento de la cabeza femoral [en la sección de Medicina del Deporte].)

Causas osteonecrosis atraumática incluyen los siguientes:

Abuso de alcohol - Los pacientes que consumen menos de 400 ml de alcohol por semana tienen un riesgo 3 veces mayor de AVN que las personas que no beben. El riesgo se eleva a un riesgo 11 veces mayor si se consume más de 400 ml por semana. (Véase también Trastornos del alcohol común, en gran medida tratada en los adultos estadounidenses y exposición de los jóvenes a la publicidad de alcohol en Revistas --- Estados Unidos, 2001 -. 2005 en Medscape Noticias)
Las coagulopatías
Quimioterapia
Enfermedad hepática crónica (Ver también los artículos Medscape referencia Cirrosis, Primaria colangitis esclerosante, y la hepatitis B, así como la calidad relacionada con la salud de la vida de los pacientes crónicos de la enfermedad hepática con y sin carcinoma hepatocelular, el apoyo nutricional en la enfermedad hepática crónica, y la calidad relacionada con la salud de la vida de los pacientes crónicos de la enfermedad hepática con y sin hepatocelular Carcinoma en Medscape News.)
Los corticosteroides [5] (Véase también Los corticosteroides influyen en la mortalidad y morbilidad de la enfermedad crítica aguda en Medscape News.)
La enfermedad de descompresión (Véase también el artículo de Medscape Referencia Enfermedad de Descompresión, así como imágenes de resonancia magnética de la descompresión de la médula espinal Enfermedad de Medscape News.)
La enfermedad de Gaucher (Véase también el artículo de Medscape Referencia Enfermedad de Gaucher.)
Gota (Ver también los artículos Medscape Referencia de imagen La gota y gota y seudogota.)
Hemoglobinopatía (por ejemplo, la enfermedad de células falciformes)
hiperlipemia idiopática (Véase también la hiperlipidemia Centro de Recursos de Medscape Noticias).
idiopática osteonecrosis atraumática
enfermedad ósea metabólica (ver también enfermedades del metabolismo del calcio y la enfermedad metabólica ósea en Medscape News.)
Embarazo
Radiación
fumadores
lupus eritematoso sistémico (Ver también los artículos Medscape referencia Lupus Eritematoso Sistémico, Medicina Física y Rehabilitación para el lupus eritematoso sistémico, y Pediatric Lupus Eritematoso Sistémico, así como el Centro de Recursos para el lupus, en Medscape News.)

Cuello femoral Fractura
del cuello femoral tensión de fractura
Lesión en la ingle
Hip Dislocación
fractura de cadera
Síndrome de uso excesivo de la cadera

  Routine laboratory studies are of little value in the evaluation of femoral head AVN other than to rule out other conditions that may cause hip pain (eg, rheumatoid arthritis). (See also the Medscape Reference articles Rheumatoid Arthritis and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis, as well as the Rheumatoid Arthritis Resource Center on Medscape News.)

Hematologic studies may reveal sickle cell disease, if clinically suspected. (See also the Medscape Reference article Sickle Cell Anemia.)
Subtle coagulation disturbances (eg, hypofibrinolysis, thrombophilia) are frequent findings, but the significant cost and limited availability of the sophisticated coagulation tests that are necessary for these diagnoses argue against routine screening.

lain radiographs

Obtain anteroposterior and frog-leg lateral views of both hips. The high incidence of bilaterality (>60%) and occult disease in cases of femoral head AVN warrant imaging of the unaffected leg.
Early radiographic findings include femoral head lucency and subchondral sclerosis.
With disease progression, subchondral collapse (ie, crescent sign) and femoral head flattening become evident radiographically. Joint space narrowing is the end result of untreated femoral head AVN.
Radiographic staging of AVN was first proposed by Ficat and Arlet in the 1960s and later amended in the 1970s.[6] This 4-stage system delineates the natural history of AVN from normal radiographs (stage I) to cystic changes and sclerosis (stage II), to subchondral collapse or femoral head flattening (stage III), and finally to joint space narrowing (stage IV). However, this system does not differentiate among certain phases in disease progression (eg, subchondral vs femoral head collapse), nor does it quantify the size and extent of the lesion.
Steinberg proposed the following staging system, known as the Steinberg Classification System, which is concise and delineates the progression and extent of AVN involvement more accurately.[7, 8] This staging system has gained increasing acceptance in the orthopedic community.
Stage I – Normal radiographs; abnormal MRI or bone scan
Stage II – Abnormal lucency or sclerotic site in femoral head
Stage III – Subchondral collapse (ie, crescent sign) without flattening of femoral head
Stage IV – Flattening of the femoral head; normal joint space
Stage V – Joint space narrowing, acetabular changes, or both
Stage VI – Advanced degenerative changes
Stages I-IV are further subdivided according to the percentage of femoral head involvement: A (< 15%), B (15-30%), or C (>30%).

MRI

MRI is the study of choice in patients who demonstrate signs and symptoms that are suggestive of AVN but whose radiographs are normal.
MRI is the most sensitive and specific means of diagnosing AVN. MRI may detect disease as early as 5 days subsequent to an ischemic insult.
Characteristic MRI findings for AVN of the hip include a low signal intensity band (seen on T1 and T2 images) that demarcates a necrotic anterosuperior femoral head segment. The extent and location of femoral head necrosis on MRIs have been studied as predictors of femoral head collapse. Smaller lesions (less than one fourth the diameter of the femoral head) and more medial lesions (away from primary weight-bearing areas) predict a better outcome.[8]

Bone scanning

Abnormalities may show up on a bone scan before they do on plain radiographs. Bone scan findings should be supplemented with MRI findings.
The presence of a photopenic area that is surrounded by increased tracer uptake is the typical scintigraphic picture for radionuclide imaging.
Bone scans are considerably less sensitive and less specific than MRI, but the images may be useful if the use of MRI is contraindicated.

Computed tomography (CT) scanning

CT scans confer significant radiation exposure to the patient and are less sensitive than MRI in diagnosing AVN.
CT scanning may help delineate early subchondral collapse because the resolution of bony architecture with this modality is unsurpassed.

Angiography is an invasive mean of diagnostic confirmation of AVN; it is most useful as an investigational modality.

 
  Rehabilitation Program
Physical Therapy

Essentially, nonoperative treatment for symptomatic AVN of the hip yields unfavorable results. Restricted patient weight bearing with the use of a cane or crutches has not been shown to affect the natural history of the disease and is useful only in controlling symptoms. Physical therapy provides only symptomatic control and also does little to alter disease progression.
Medical Issues/Complications

If the AVN is associated with a patient's alcohol use, the clinician is urged to assist the patient in alcohol abstinence. Patient referral to social services, psychologic or psychiatric counseling, or community outreach is recommended. For patients with prolonged steroid use, osteoporosis screening is indicated. (See also the Medscape Reference article Anabolic Steroid Use and Abuse, as well as Alcohol Disorders Common, Largely Untreated Among American Adults and Predictors of Future Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Use on Medscape News.)
Surgical Intervention

Surgical treatment of AVN can be broadly categorized as either prophylactic measures (to retard progression) or reconstruction procedures (after femoral head collapse). Small asymptomatic lesions do not warrant surgical intervention and are closely monitored with serial examination. If symptoms ensue, repeat imaging and surgical treatment are indicated.

Prophylactic measures
The most commonly performed prophylactic surgical intervention is core decompression, whereby one or more cores of necrotic femoral head bone is removed in order to stimulate repair.[9] Core decompression is often supplemented with bone grafting (cancellous autograft or structural allograft) to enhance mechanical support and augment healing. Biologic augmentation of core decompression includes the addition of demineralized bone matrix, bone morphogenic proteins, or electric/electromagnetic stimulation.[10] These agents are purported to either enhance bone formation or decrease bone resorption in the hope of maintaining the structural integrity of the femoral head. Biologic augmentation of core decompression alone offers therapeutic benefit—if it is instituted before subchondral collapse (Steinberg stage III).[10]
The addition of a vascularized fibular graft to core decompression offers promise in cases with more advanced lesions, but this procedure involves considerable morbidity. One study indicated that vascularized fibular grafts were more effective in preventing femoral head collapse than nonvascularized fibular autografts.[11, 12]
The results of prophylactic measures for femoral head AVN have considerable variation, but certain generalizations can safely be stated. Namely, the clinical results of core decompression alone deteriorate with more advanced lesions.[10] The addition of cancellous bone grafting appears to slightly enhance clinical outcomes if subchondral fracture is present.[11] The addition of demineralized bone matrix to core decompression confers little (if any) clinical response, and the effects of bone morphogenic protein remain uncertain.
The supplemental implementation of electrical stimulation with core decompression has provided disappointing results.[10] Low-frequency pulsed electric and magnetic fields may offer more promise, but clinical results thus far are inconclusive. The placement of a structural graft through a core tract into the femoral head generally yields disappointing results. However, grafts placed into the femoral neck or directly into the femoral head are more promising. Free vascularized fibular grafting significantly alters disease progression in precollapse lesions and is even useful in modifying disease in mildly collapsed and early arthritic hips.[11]
Osteotomies are performed in attempt to move necrotic bone away from primary weight-bearing areas in the hip joint. Osteotomies can be angular or rotational, with the latter proving to be much more technically difficult. These techniques may delay arthroplasty, but they are best suited for small precollapse or early postcollapse of the femoral head in patients who don't have an ongoing cause of AVN. However, osteotomies make subsequent arthroplasty more challenging and, unfortunately, these procedures are associated with an appreciable risk of nonunion.
The role of arthroscopy to better stage the extent of disease has emerged. Arthroscopic evaluation of the joint can help better define the extent of chondral flaps, joint degeneration and even joint collapse and may help with the temporary relief of synovitis.[13] Arthroscopic-assisted reduction of the head collapse is experimental at this time.
Reconstruction procedures
Despite aggressive management, most hips that undergo collapse ultimately require reconstruction (ie, replacement). Prosthetic replacement offers the most predictable means of pain relief in advanced AVN; however, many arthroplasty options are available to meet the challenge of painful arthropathy in younger patients.[14]
Femoral resurfacing arthroplasty is gaining acceptance for younger patients.[14] Both the femoral head and acetablum are "resurfaced" with metal, indicating minimal bone resection. This procedure circumvents the problem of polyethylene wear. However, technical and design problems with surface replacements may explain the relatively high failure rate in some clinical series.[15] Nonetheless, refinements in both technique and design predict improved outcomes.
Resurfacing arthroplasty remains a controversial procedure that likely will not last a patient’s lifetime. Current recommendations are that resurfacing is contraindicated if the avascular area exceeds one third of the femoral head. Furthermore, there is a 1% incidence of femoral neck fracture with this procedure. Lastly, the issue of metal ion release has spurred much debate, although there are no good data available to suggest injurious effects. Fortunately, resurfacing arthroplasty likely confers no significant compromise for subsequent arthroplasty.
Bipolar arthroplasty theoretically decreases shear stress and impact load on acetabular cartilage, although this concept has not been born out clinically.[14] Persistent groin pain, high rates of polyethylene wear, and early loosening have mitigated the appeal of this option. Resection arthroplasty should only be considered in very young patients and in debilitated patients who are at high risk for infection (eg, patients on dialysis).
Total hip arthroplasty is perhaps the most commonly performed and successful surgery for advanced AVN of the hip. However, clinical outcomes are inferior to those of total hip arthroplasty that is performed for osteoarthritis. Cementless prostheses with an improved design may afford increased longevity relative to cemented counterparts. Despite recent improvements in prosthetic replacement, replacement arthroplasty precludes further participation in impact activities (eg, running, jogging) because these activities greatly decrease implant longevity.

Consultations

Because AVN of the hip is often associated with pronounced medical comorbidities (eg, sickle cell disease, systemic lupus erythematosus), medical consultation is prudent, particularly during the perioperative period. Furthermore, if no obvious cause of AVN is seen, medical consultation would be a reasonable measure in order to help discern less common etiologies. (See Clinical, Causes, above.)
Other Treatment

Injections of cortisone into the hip joint may temporarily alleviate the symptoms of AVN; however, these injections are not generally recommended because of their invasiveness and short-lasting effects.

 

Medical therapy for AVN of the hip is principally indicated for relief of discomfort. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and, on occasion, narcotics, form the basis of pharmacotherapy. Investigations into vasoactive lipid-lowering agents and anticoagulants are ongoing and hold promise[5, 16, 17] ; however, these medications are not currently recommended. Inhibition of the vascular endothelial growth factor may hold promise in preventing femoral head collapse because revascularization compromises bone structural integrity. Because medical comorbidities are common in patients with AVN, the use of selective cyclooxygenase (COX)–2 inhibitors is appealing.

 
 

Monografía creada el 12 de marzo de 2014. Equipo de Redacción de IQB

 
   
 
 
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